The Castle that Never Ends Mother of Pearls

The Castle that Never Ends, originally uploaded by Stuck in Customs.

LUCY PEARL LALA16,589 views

Lucy Pearl - Dance Tonight658,461 views

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Lucy Pearl - You237,326 views

Lucy Pearl Good Love133,269 views

Lucy Pearl - Everyday

62,747 views as of 7.31.2009 2.37pm est...

ntfe sleepy sleepy nite nite cyberhoneys in the world
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
new note 7.31.2009 2.37pm est...

MOTHEROFPEARLSBOTTOMOFTHESEA.....................


lyrics made of gold...........more lyrics to love...........

Yes I'm coming over now
I've been waiting all day long
I feel like you know what's going on
You've always given me some greater times
Here's my only one request
Don't ever stop giving me your best
Ever day, every day, every day, every day
Is a better day
That's when you come around my way
Every night, every night, every night, every night
Is a better night
That's when we get time to play
Every night I want to play with you
You have me under lock and key
Well this is where I want to be now
Tonight I'm giving you the best of me
I promise I will not hold back
You can count on me to bring it on
Ever day, every day, every day, every day
Is a better day
That's when you come around my way
Every night, every night, every night, every night
Is a better night
That's when we get time to play
Every day is a better day
Every day's a special day
You and me we both make it that way
Every night's a better night
That's why, that's why
I love to say that every day
Ever day, every day, every day, every day
Is a better day
That's when you come around my way
Every night, every night, every night, every night
Is a better night
That's when we get time to play

Lucy Pearl Everyday lyrics love Raphael Saadiq...n Tony Toni Toné crew...and cameo by Snoop Dogg

feeling HOT HOT HOT for my honey's back home * boyz n girlz * club...drop it like it's hot

OK HONEY'S LET'S JUST GO SURFING INSTEAD...FORGED ABOUD IT!....LIVE YOUR LIFE TO THE FULLEST....................FEELING HOT HOT HOT

Snoop Dogg-Drop it like it's hot30,127 views

surf sister tofino girls in Costa Rica 2008 part 3 1,282 views

hanaleimike
March 26, 2008

The last installment of the Surf Sister trilogy.Category: SportsTags: water sport surfing tofino surf sister girls

Buster Poindexter - Hot Hot Hot 408,870 views

crazyhouse0830 408,870 views
June 13, 2007

Buster Poindexter Hot Hot HotCategory: MusicTags: Buster Poindexter Hot_Hot_Hot New York Dolls

tbc is it hot over there honey's???? it's hot over here too!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

BE RIGHT BACK! TIME TO DANCE! NO TIME FOR EDITING!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

ColdplayTV 1,231 views
July 30, 2009

The official video for the new single. To read about how it was made, check out Coldplay.com's interview with directors Shynola - http://www.coldplay.com/new...

Category: MusicTags: coldplay strawberry swing official shynola

Official Strawberry Swing video



Coldplay - Viva La Vida (Live)3,878,574 views

MOVE OVER HONEY, WE'RE THE LAST ONE'S LEFT AND WE'RE TAKING OVER

PDTantisocial
January 23, 2009 14,742 views

"Caged Bird Pt. 1" by Zion I, featuring Brother Ali, from "The Take Over", droppin February 17.Category: MusicTags: Zion Zumbi Amp Live Amplive The Take Over Takeover Caged Bird Part Pt Brother Ali

The Beatles - Strawberry Fields Forever (High quality) 153,970 views

demebeat14
March 29, 2008 153,970 views

The Beatles - Strawberry Fields Forever
The promotional film it was filmed on 30 and 31 January 1967 in Knole Park in Sevenoaks, and was directed by Peter Goldmann. Goldmann was a friend of Klaus Voormann who recommended the Swedish TV director to the group. Category: MusicTags: The Beatles Strawberry Fields Forever Lennon Harrison Ringo Star McCartney George Martin rare video colour 1967 high quality HQ anthology color

Back To The Future Part I Original Theatrical Trailer 833,783 views

BillyGlenn 833,783 views
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Back To The Future Part I Original Theatrical TrailerCategory: EntertainmentTags: BTTF back to the future zidz zurück in die zukunft original theatrical trailer

HUEY LEWIS & THE NEWS - The Power Of Love 66,437 views

luckysmusic 66,437 views
July 25, 2008

LYRICS:
The power of love is a curious thing
Make a one man weep, make another man sing
Change a hawk to a little white dove
More than a feeling thats the power of love
Tougher than diamonds, rich like cream
Stronger and harder than a bad girls dream
Make a bad one good make a wrong one right
Power of love that keeps you home at night
You dont need money, dont take fame
Don't need no credit card to ride this train
Its strong and its sudden and its cruel sometimes
But it might just save your life
Thats the power of love
Thats the power of love
First time you feel it, it might make you sad
Next time you feel it it might make you mad
But youll be glad baby when youve found
Thats the power makes the world go round
And it dont take money, dont take fame
Dont need no credit card to ride this train
Its strong and its sudden it can be cruel sometimes
But it might just save your life
They say that all in love is fair
Yeah, but you dont care
But you know what to do
When it gets hold of you
And with a little help from above
You feel the power of love
You feel the power of love
Can you feel it ? ....Hmmm
It dont take money and it dont take fame
Dont need no credit card to ride this train
Tougher than diamonds and stronger than steel
You wont feel nothin till you feel
You feel the power, that's the power of love
Thats the power, thats the power of love
You feel the power of love
You feel the power of love
Feel the power of love

Category: MusicTags: HUEY LEWIS THE NEWS The Power Of Love back to the future

Robert Palmer - Addicted To Love (Live) 184,335 views

rrn3000 184,335 views
August 06, 2007

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Tokyo May 2, 1986Category: MusicTags: Robert Palmer Live B.J. Nelson Eddie Martinez Frank Blair Alan Mansfield Martha Ladly Kit McClure Dony Wynn Sally Ven-Yu

Bigg Snoop Dogg takes it bacc to tha 80s baccstage on Dogg After Dark 8,623 views

westfesttv boy did i love this when he danced...:)
March 24, 2009Bigg Snoop Dogg takes it bacc to tha 80s baccstage on Dogg After DarkCategory: People & BlogsTags: Snoop Dogg MTV Dogg After Dark 80's breakdancing

Waterfalls Somewhere Over The Rainbow Is The Rose

Rose, originally uploaded by ajpscs.

no rules, no limitations, no boundaries it's like an art

BEST VIEW LARGE
view the whole set of THE ROSE

for COSMOS LOVERS

for POPPY LOVERS

for SAKURA LOVERS

Uploaded by ajpscs on 23 Oct 06, 3.10PM PDT.

Beaches - Wind Beneath My Wings 1,460,874 views

DivineMissM
February 08, 2007

Get the tissues out!Category: EntertainmentTags: beaches wind beneath my wings bette midler barbara hershey

delagosis November 26, 2008 From Divine Madness

Some say love, it is a river
that drowns the tender reed.
Some say love, it is a razor
that leaves your soul to bleed.
Some say love, it is a hunger,
an endless aching need.
I say love, it is a flower,
and you it's only seed.

It's the heart afraid of breaking
that never learns to dance.
It's the dream afraid of waking
that never takes the chance.
It's the one who won't be taken,
who cannot seem to give,
and the soul afraid of dyin'
that never learns to live.

When the night has been too lonely
and the road has been to long,
and you think that love is only
for the lucky and the strong,
just remember in the winter
far beneath the winter snows
lies the seed that with the sun's love
in the spring becomes the rose.

Category: MusicTags: Bette Midler The Rose live Some say love Divine Madness family guy

niagara falls overlooking the american falls...........I love you.........Israel Kamakawiwo'Ole...........................................
Israel Kamakawiwo'Ole 'IZ' 'Somewhere Over The Rainbow' HQ 2,463,725 views

DVideoPro
December 01, 2008

WITH ORIGINAL SOUND! Official 'SOMEWHERE OVER THE RAINBOW' Music Video by Israel Kamakawiwo'ole

download @ http://www.myspace.com/danielavideo

niagara falls rainbow bridge and the american falls..................................................................................................


Israel "Iz" Kaʻanoʻi Kamakawiwoʻole (May 20, 1959 -- June 26, 1997) (pronounced [ka-maka-vi-vo-ole]) was an Hawaiian musician.

He became famous outside Hawaii when his album Facing Future was released in 1993 with his medley of "Over the Rainbow" and "What a Wonderful World", which was subsequently featured in several films, television programs, and commercials.

From childhood, his family called Israel by his Hawaiian middle name, Kaʻanoʻi, the "beloved one". His name would later become the title name of his first solo album, Kaʻanoʻi, and also foretells the greatness of this "cherished one". It is interesting to note here that part of his name, anoʻi, when simplified to noʻi may be a contraction of the Hawaiian word, nohi. Nohi means "bright-colored, vivid, as the rainbow" (see Hawaiian Dictionary, Pukui and Elbert). Nohi, rainbow, beloved one, and cherished one are powerful symbols in his life. Iz's recording of the song "Somewhere Over The Rainbow" would become renowned throughout the world and continues to garner high acclaim. The song has come to be known as Izʻs "signature song", the most renowned of all his songs.

Kamakawiwo`ole was nicknamed "The Gentle Giant" by his admirers. He was described as always cheerful and positive, and he was best known for his love of the land and of the people of Hawaiʻi. Through his consummate ukulele playing and incorporation of other idioms (such as jazz and reggae), Iz remains one of the major influences in Hawaiian music over the last 15 years.

Israel's recording of "Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World" reached #12 on Billboard's Hot Digital Tracks chart the week of 1/31/04 (for the survey week ending 1/18/04), possibly due to its use in the Adam Sandler film 50 First Dates, and the Brad Pitt film Meet Joe Black.

In 2006, a version of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow", in an arrangement based on Iz', was performed by The Worthless Peons in "My Way Home", the 100th episode of Scrubs, over the closing montage. A recording of the same song by Iz was used in the closing scenes of the final episode of Life on Mars (TV Series). It is also a featured song in the movie Finding Forrester. In 2002, the song was used to powerful effect in the closing scenes of Anthony Edwards' last appearance in ER as Dr. Mark Greene, in the episode "On the Beach". On week 8 of American Idol (season 7), Jason Castro performed his own version of this song except that he left out the "What a Wonderful World" line, but still gave credit to Israel for the song.

DEATH:
Throughout the later part of his life, Iz was obese and at one point carried 758 pounds (344 kg) on his 6 feet 2 inches (1.9 m) frame. He endured several hospitalizations and died of weight-related respiratory illness on June 26, 1997 at 12:18 am at the age of 38.

The Hawaiʻi State Flag flew at half-staff on July 10, 1997, the day of Iz's funeral. His koa wood coffin lay in state at the Capitol building in Honolulu. He was the third person in Hawaiian history to be accorded this honor (the other two were Governor John A. Burns and Senator Spark Matsunaga) and the only non-politician. Over 10,000 people attended his funeral. Thousands of fans gathered and cheered as his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean at Mākua Beach on July 12, 1997.

On September 20, 2003, hundreds paid tribute to Iz as a 200-pound bronze bust of the revered singer was unveiled at the Waianae Neighborhood Community Center on O'ahu. The singer's widow, Marlene Kamakawiwo'ole, and sculptor Jan-Michelle Sawyer were present for the dedication ceremony.

Category: People & BlogsTags: Somewhere Over The Rainbow what wonderful world Tribute

Rainbow

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Rainbow (disambiguation).

Semicircular double rainbow (second one barely discernible) in Wrangell-St. Elias National Park, Alaska. Supernumerary rainbows can be seen on the inside of the primary arc. The sky inside the primary bow is brighter than that outside.

A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of light to appear in the sky when the Sun shines onto droplets of moisture in the Earth's atmosphere. They take the form of a multicoloured arc, with red on the outer part of the arch and violet on the inner section of the arch.

A rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colours. Traditionally, however, the sequence is quantised. The most commonly cited and remembered sequence, in English, is Newton's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet (popularly memorized by mnemonics like Roy G. Biv).

Rainbows can be caused by other forms of water than rain, including mist, spray, and dew.

Steam phase eruption of Castle Geyser demonstrates primary and secondary rainbows and Alexander's band in Yellowstone National Park

Rainbow over Malmesjaur in the wilderness off Lappland in Sweden.

Contents [hide] 1 Visibility 2 Scientific explanation 3 Variations 3.1 Supernumerary rainbow 3.2 Reflected rainbow, reflection rainbow 3.3 Circumhorizontal arc 3.4 Rainbows on Titan 4 Scientific history 5 Culture 5.1 Religion and mythology 5.2 Art 5.3 Literature 5.4 Music 5.5 Flags 6 The place of indigo 7 Cyan 8 The seven colours of the rainbow 9 Effects to be distinguished from rainbow 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

[edit] Visibility

Rainbows may also form in mist, such as that of a waterfall

Rainbows may also form in the spray created by waves (called spray bows).

Rainbows can be observed whenever there are water drops in the air and sunlight shining from behind a person at a low altitude angle (on the ground). The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half of the sky is still dark with raining clouds and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the Sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background.

The rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a moonbow, lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human visual perception for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white.^[1] It is difficult to photograph the complete semi-circle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an angle of view of 84°. For a 35 mm camera, a lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less wide-angle lens would be required. Now that powerful software for stitching several images into a panorama is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames. From an aeroplane, one has the opportunity to see the whole circle of the rainbow, with the plane's shadow in the centre. This phenomenon can be confused with the glory, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5°–20°.

Double rainbow

At good visibility conditions (for example, a dark cloud behind the rainbow), the second arc can be seen, with inverse order of colours. At the background of the blue sky, the second arc is barely visible.

[edit] Scientific explanation

The light is first refracted as it enters the surface of the raindrop, reflected off the back of the drop, and again refracted as it leaves the drop. The overall effect is that the incoming light is reflected back over a wide range of angles, with the most intense light at an angle of 40°–42°. The angle is independent of the size of the drop, but does depend on its refractive index. Seawater has a higher refractive index than rain water, so the radius of a 'rainbow' in sea spray is smaller than a true rainbow. This is visible to the naked eye by a misalignment of these bows.^[2] The amount by which light is refracted depends upon its wavelength, and hence its colour. Blue light (shorter wavelength) is refracted at a greater angle than red light, but due to the reflection of light rays from the back of the droplet, the blue light emerges from the droplet at a smaller angle to the original incident white light ray than the red light. You may then think it is strange that the pattern of colours in a rainbow has red on the outside of the arc and blue on the inside. However, when we examine this issue more closely, we realise that if the red light from one droplet is seen by an observer, then the blue light from that droplet will not be seen because it must be on a different path from the red light: a path which is not incident with the observer's eyes. The blue light seen in this rainbow will therefore come from a different droplet, which must be below that whose red light can be observed.

Contrary to popular belief, the light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo total internal reflection, and some light does emerge from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the other visible rainbows do, and thus the colours blend together rather than forming a rainbow.

Light rays enter a raindrop from one direction (typically a straight line from the Sun), reflect off the back of the raindrop, and fan out as they leave the raindrop. The light leaving the rainbow is spread over a wide angle, with a maximum intensity at 40.89°–42°.

White light separates into different colours on entering the raindrop because red light is refracted by a lesser angle than blue light. On leaving the raindrop, the red rays have turned through a smaller angle than the blue rays, producing a rainbow.

A rainbow does not actually exist at a particular location in the sky. Its apparent position depends on the observer's location and the position of the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The position of a rainbow in the sky is always in the opposite direction of the Sun with respect to the observer, and the interior is always slightly brighter than the exterior. The bow is centred on the shadow of the observer's head, or more exactly at the antisolar point (which is below the horizon during the daytime), appearing at an angle of 40°–42° to the line between the observer's head and its shadow. As a result, if the Sun is higher than 42°, then the rainbow is below the horizon and cannot be seen as there are not usually sufficient raindrops between the horizon (that is: eye height) and the ground, to contribute. Exceptions occur when the observer is high above the ground, for example in an aeroplane (see above), on top of a mountain, or above a waterfall.

[edit] Variations

Some light reflects twice inside the raindrop before exiting to the viewer. When the incident light is very bright, this can be seen as a secondary rainbow, brightest at 50°–53°.

A double rainbow features reversed colours in the outer (secondary) bow, with the dark Alexander's band between the bows.

Primary and secondary rainbows are visible, as well as a reflected primary and a faintly visible reflected secondary.

Occasionally, a second, dimmer, and thicker secondary rainbow is seen outside the primary bow. Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the raindrops, and appear at an angle of 50°–53°. As a result of the second reflection, the colours of a secondary rainbow are inverted compared to the primary bow, with blue on the outside and red on the inside. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander's band, after Alexander of Aphrodisias who first described it.

A third, or tertiary, rainbow can be seen on rare occasions, and a few observers have reported seeing quadruple rainbows in which a dim outermost arc had a rippling and pulsating appearance. These rainbows would appear on the same side of the sky as the Sun, making them hard to spot. One type of tertiary rainbow carries with it the appearance of a secondary rainbow immediately outside the primary bow. The closely spaced outer bow has been observed to form dynamically at the same time that the outermost (tertiary) rainbow disappears. During this change, the two remaining rainbows have been observed to merge into a band of white light with a blue inner and red outer band. This particular form of doubled rainbow is not like the classic double rainbow due to both spacing of the two bows and that the two bows share identical normal colour positioning before merging. With both bows, the inner colour is blue and the outer colour is red.

Higher-order rainbows were described by Felix Billet (1808-1882) who depicted angular positions up to the 19^th-order rainbow. A pattern he called “rose”.^[3] In the laboratory, it is possible to observe higher-order rainbows by using extremely bright and well collimated light produced by lasers. A sixth-order rainbow was first observed by K. Sassan in 1979 using a HeNe laser beam and a pendant water drop.^[4]. Up to the 200^th-order rainbow was reported by Ng et al. in 1998 using a similar method but an argon ion laser beam ^[5]

[edit] Supernumerary rainbow

A contrast-enhanced photograph of a supernumerary rainbow, with additional green and purple arcs inside the primary bow.

A supernumerary rainbow is an infrequent phenomenon, consisting of several faint rainbows on the inner side of the primary rainbow, and very rarely also outside the secondary rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are slightly detached and have pastel colour bands that do not fit the usual pattern.

It is not possible to explain their existence using classical geometric optics. The alternating faint rainbows are caused by interference between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in phase, reinforcing each other through constructive interference, creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through destructive interference, and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of similar size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the wave nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by Thomas Young in 1804.

[edit] Reflected rainbow, reflection rainbow

Reflection rainbow and normal rainbow, at sunset

Special rainbows may appear when a rainbow is seen above a body of water, if the water surface is quiet. A reflected rainbow will appear as a mirror image below the horizon (see photo above). The sunlight is first deflected by the raindrops, and then reflected off the body of water, before reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles.

Where sunlight reflects off a body of water before reaching the raindrops (see diagram), it may produce a reflection rainbow (see photo at the right), if the water body is large, and quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely visible.

Six (or even eight) bows may be distinguished if the reflection of the reflection bow, and the secondary bow with its reflections happen to appear as well.^[6]

[edit] Circumhorizontal arc

The circumhorizontal arc is sometimes referred to by the misnomer 'fire rainbow'. As it originates in ice crystals it is not a rainbow but a halo.^[7]

[edit] Rainbows on Titan

It has been suggested that rainbows might exist on Saturn's moon Titan, as it has a wet surface and humid clouds. The radius of a Titan rainbow would be about 49° instead of 42°, because the fluid in that cold environment is methane instead of water. A visitor might need infrared goggles to see the rainbow, as Titan's atmosphere is more transparent for those wavelengths.^[8]

[edit] Scientific history

The Arab physicist and polymath, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen; 965-1039), attempted to provide a scientific explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. In his Maqala fi al-Hala wa Qaws Quzah (On the Rainbow and Halo), he "explained the formation of rainbow as an image, which forms at a concave mirror. If the rays of light coming from a farther light source reflect to any point on axis of the concave mirror, they form concentric circles in that point. When it is supposed that the sun as a farther light source, the eye of viewer as a point on the axis of mirror and a cloud as a reflecting surface, then it can be observed the concentric circles are forming on the axis."^[9] He was not able to verify this because his theory that "light from the sun is reflected by a cloud before reaching the eye" did not allow for a possible experimental verification.^[10] This explanation was later repeated by Averroes,^[9] and, though incorrect, provided the groundwork for the correct explanations later given by Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1267-ca.1319/1320) and Theodoric of Freiberg.^[11]

Ibn al-Haytham's contemporary, the Persian philosopher and polymath Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna; 980-1037), provided an alternative explanation, writing "that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves simply as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the colour formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye."^[12] This explanation, however, was also incorrect.^[9]

In Song Dynasty China (960–1279), a polymathic scholar-official named Shen Kuo (1031–1095) hypothesized—as a certain Sun Sikong (1015–1076) did before him—that rainbows were formed by a phenomenon of sunlight encountering droplets of rain in the air.^[13] Paul Dong writes that Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of atmospheric refraction "is basically in accord with modern scientific principles."^[14]

The Persian astronomer, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), gave a fairly accurate explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. This was elaborated on by his student, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1260–1320), who gave a more mathematically satisfactory explanation of the rainbow. He "proposed a model where the ray of light from the sun was refracted twice by a water droplet, one or more reflections occurring between the two refractions." He verified this through extensive experimentation using a transparent sphere filled with water and a camera obscura.^[10] As he noted in his Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of the Optics), al-Farisi used a large clear vessel of glass in the shape of a sphere, which was filled with water, in order to have an experimental large-scale model of a rain drop. He then placed this model within a camera obscura that has a controlled aperture for the introduction of light. He projected light unto the sphere and ultimately deducted through several trials and detailed observations of reflections and refractions of light that the colours of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light. His research had resonances with the studies of his contemporary Theodoric of Freiberg (without any contacts between them; even though they both relied on Ibn al-Haytham's legacy), and later with the experiments of Descartes and Newton in dioptrics (for instance, Newton conducted a similar experiment at Trinity College, though using a prism rather than a sphere).^{[15][16][17][18]}

In Europe, Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics was translated into Latin and studied by Robert Grosseteste. His work on light was continued by Roger Bacon, who wrote in his Opus Majus of 1268 about experiments with light shining through crystals and water droplets showing the colours of the rainbow.^[19] Theodoric of Freiberg is known to have given an accurate theoretical explanation of both the primary and secondary rainbows in 1307. He explained the primary rainbow, noting that "when sunlight falls on individual drops of moisture, the rays undergo two refractions (upon ingress and egress) and one reflection (at the back of the drop) before transmission into the eye of the observer".^[20] He explained the secondary rainbow through a similar analysis involving two refractions and two reflections.

René Descartes' sketch of how primary and secondary rainbows are formed

Descartes 1637 treatise, Discourse on Method, further advanced this explanation. Knowing that the size of raindrops did not appear to affect the observed rainbow, he experimented with passing rays of light through a large glass sphere filled with water. By measuring the angles that the rays emerged, he concluded that the primary bow was caused by a single internal reflection inside the raindrop and that a secondary bow could be caused by two internal reflections. He supported this conclusion with a derivation of the law of refraction (subsequently, but independently of, Snell) and correctly calculated the angles for both bows. His explanation of the colours, however, was based on a mechanical version of the traditional theory that colours were produced by a modification of white light.^[21][22]

Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of the light of all the colours of the rainbow, which a glass prism could separate into the full spectrum of colours, rejecting the theory that the colours were produced by a modification of white light. He also showed that red light gets refracted less than blue light, which led to the first scientific explanation of the major features of the rainbow.^[23] Newton's corpuscular theory of light was unable to explain supernumerary rainbows, and a satisfactory explanation was not found until Thomas Young realised that light behaves as a wave under certain conditions, and can interfere with itself.

Young's work was refined in the 1820s by George Biddell Airy, who explained the dependence of the strength of the colours of the rainbow on the size of the water droplets. Modern physical descriptions of the rainbow are based on Mie scattering, work published by Gustav Mie in 1908. Advances in computational methods and optical theory continue to lead to a fuller understanding of rainbows. For example, Nussenzveig provides a modern overview.^[24]

[edit] Culture

[edit] Religion and mythology

The end of a rainbow.

The end of a rainbow on Lake Zürich nearby Zürich as seen from Käferberg (Switzerland)

Main article: Rainbows in mythology

The rainbow has a place in legend owing to its beauty and the historical difficulty in explaining the phenomenon.

In Greek mythology, the rainbow was considered to be a path made by a messenger (Iris) between Earth and Heaven. In Chinese mythology, the rainbow was a slit in the sky sealed by Goddess Nüwa using stones of five different colours. In Hindu mythology, the rainbow is called "Indradhanush", meaning the bow (Sanskrit & Hindi: dhanush is bow) of Indra, the God of lightning, thunder and rain. Another Indian mythology says rainbow is the bow of Kama, the God of love. It is called Kamanabillu in Kannada, billu meaning bow. In Norse Mythology, a rainbow called the Bifröst Bridge connects the realms of Ásgard and Midgard, homes of the gods and humans, respectively. The Irish leprechaun's secret hiding place for his pot of gold is usually said to be at the end of the rainbow. This place is nearly impossible to reach, because the rainbow is an optical effect which depends on the location of the viewer. When walking towards the end of a rainbow, it will move further away.

After Noah's Flood, the Bible relates that the rainbow gained meaning as the sign of God's promise that terrestrial life would never again be destroyed by flood (Genesis 9.13-15)^[25]:

I have set my bow in the clouds, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth. When I bring clouds over the earth and the bow is seen in the clouds, I will remember my covenant that is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh.

Another ancient portrayal of the rainbow is given in the Epic of Gilgamesh: the rainbow is the "jewelled necklace of the Great Mother Ishtar" that she lifts into the sky as a promise that she "will never forget these days of the great flood" that destroyed her children. (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet Eleven)

Then Ishtar arrived. She lifted up the necklace of great jewels that her father, Anu, had created to please her and said, "Heavenly gods, as surely as this jewelled necklace hangs upon my neck, I will never forget these days of the great flood. Let all of the gods except Enlil come to the offering. Enlil may not come, for without reason he brought forth the flood that destroyed my people."

In the Dreamtime of Australian Aboriginal mythology, the rainbow snake is the deity governing water.

In New Age and Hindu philosophy, the seven colours of the rainbow represent the seven chakras, from the first chakra (red) to the seventh chakra (violet).

[edit] Art

Rainbows are generally described as very colourful and peaceful. The rainbow occurs often in paintings. Frequently these have a symbolic or programmatic significance (for example, Albrecht Dürer's Melancholia I). In particular, the rainbow appears regularly in religious art (for example, Joseph Anton Koch's Noah's Thanksoffering). Romantic landscape painters such as Turner and Constable were more concerned with recording fleeting effects of light (for example, Constable's Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows). Other notable examples appear in work by Hans Memling, Caspar David Friedrich, and Peter Paul Rubens.

The Blind Girl, oil painting (1856) by John Everett Millais. The rainbow – one of the beauties of nature that the blind girl cannot experience – is used to underline the pathos of her condition.

Noah's Thanksoffering (c.1803) by Joseph Anton Koch. Noah builds an altar to the Lord after being delivered from the Flood; God sends the rainbow as a sign of his covenant (Genesis 8-9).

[edit] Literature

The rainbow inspires metaphor and simile. Virginia Woolf in To the Lighthouse highlights the transience of life and Man's mortality through Mrs Ramsey's thought,

"it was all as ephemeral as a rainbow"

Wordsworth's 1802 poem "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold The Rainbow" begins:

My heart leaps up when I behold

A rainbow in the sky:

So was it when my life began;

So is it now I am a man;

So be it when I shall grow old,

Or let me die!…

The Newtonian deconstruction of the rainbow is said to have provoked John Keats to lament in his 1820 poem "Lamia":

Do not all charms fly

At the mere touch of cold philosophy?

There was an awful rainbow once in heaven:

We know her woof, her texture; she is given

In the dull catalogue of common things.

Philosophy will clip an Angel's wings,

Conquer all mysteries by rule and line,

Empty the haunted air, and gnomed mine –

Unweave a rainbow

In contrast to this is Richard Dawkins; talking about his book Unweaving the Rainbow: Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder:

"My title is from Keats, who believed that Newton had destroyed all the poetry of the rainbow by reducing it to the prismatic colours. Keats could hardly have been more wrong, and my aim is to guide all who are tempted by a similar view, towards the opposite conclusion. Science is, or ought to be, the inspiration for great poetry."

[edit] Music

• In Over the Rainbow from The Wizard of Oz the young character Dorothy Gale, fantasizes about a place over the rainbow, where everything is alright, and the world is in peace and harmony.
• In Rainbow Connection, a song known for being sung by Kermit the Frog, the idea of a rainbow is seen as something to wish on, as it is popularly seen as a vision, or symbol of hope.
• In the hit 1995 song Waterfalls by TLC written by the late Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes, Left Eye mentions in a rap that....

"I seen a rainbow yesterday, but too many storms have come, and gone, leaving a trace of not one god given ray"

Which is a song lyric that confirms the pop culture behind a rainbow being seen as a godly affirmation, or a sign of strong hope.

• In the End of The Rainbow by September the singer sings about the rainbow, and how she will be at the end of the rainbow and her ex could see her there when he reaches the end of the rainbow.

See also the group Rainbow and the song "Rainbow Demon" by Uriah Heep.

[edit] Flags

Main article: Rainbow flag

Historically, a rainbow flag was used in the German Peasants' War in the 16th century as a sign of a new era, of hope and of social change. Rainbow flags have also been used as a symbol of the Cooperative movement; as a symbol of peace, especially in Italy; to represent the Tawantin Suyu, or Inca territory, mainly in Peru and Bolivia;^[26] by some Druze communities in the Middle east; and by the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.

A "rainbow flag" has been in use as a symbol of "gay pride" and LGBT social movements since the 1970s. The colours reflect the diversity of the LGBT community. It was originally designed by San Francisco artist Gilbert Baker in 1978. ^[27][28]

[edit] The place of indigo

All the Roy G. Biv mnemonics follow the tradition of including the colour indigo between blue and violet. Newton originally (1672) named only five primary colours: red, yellow, green, blue and violet. Only later did he introduce orange and indigo, giving seven colours by analogy to the number of notes in a musical scale.^[29] Some sources now omit indigo, because it is a tertiary colour and partly due to the poor ability of humans to distinguish colours in the blue portion of the visual spectrum.^[30]

[edit] Cyan

There is also some evidence that Newton's use of the terms blue and indigo map to the modern hues cyan and blue respectively. Therefore, using today's colour terms, Newton would say that the spectrum contains red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue, and violet. Thus, the rainbow would contain the following colours: ^[31][32]

[edit] The seven colours of the rainbow

Since rainbows are composed of a continuous spectrum, different people, most notably across different cultures^[who?], identify different numbers of colours in rainbows. The seven colours shown below are a typical representation for Western civilization and Indian civilization.

Note: The spectrum colours can only be approximated on a computer screen but the colours shown below are a close approximation of the spectrum colours of the rainbow.

• Red (web colour) (Hex: #FF0000) (RGB: 255, 0, 0)
• Orange (colour wheel Orange) (Hex: #FF7F00) (RGB: 255, 127, 0)
• Yellow (web colour) (Hex: #FFFF00) (RGB: 255, 255, 0)
• Green (X11) (Electric Green) (HTML/CSS “Lime”) (Colour wheel green) (Hex: #00FF00) (RGB: 0, 255, 0)
• Blue (web colour) (Hex: #0000FF) (RGB: 0, 0, 255)
• Indigo (Electric Indigo) (Hex: #6600FF) (RGB: 102, 0, 255)
• Violet (Electric Violet) (Hex: #8B00FF) (RGB: 139, 0, 255)

[edit] Effects to be distinguished from rainbow

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